Saturday, September 3, 2022

News update 04/09/2022 6

With such enormous powers, Caesar carries out a number of important reforms: he expands the Senate and increases the number of magistrates at the expense of his legionnaires, thereby weakening the power of both the Senate and the magistracies. He carried out agrarian reform and developed a new code of laws ("Lex Iulia de vi et de majestate"). Caesar reforms the calendar in order to stop political machinations at the expense of disputes over the calculation of time (see the article "Ancient Rome"). This calendar has since been called the Julian. Caesar has huge plans for the future: build a new theater, a temple of Mars, open Greek and Roman libraries, pacify the Dacians and Parthians. However, these plans were not destined to come true.

Despite the policy of dementia, which Caesar is steadily pursuing, discontent is brewing against his power. Caesar forgave and returned the former Pompeians. Even after the battle of Pharsalus, he burned all of Pompey's correspondence, demonstrating that he was not interested in who supported his opponent, and announced that everyone who turned to him would receive forgiveness. However, such mercy ended badly for him.

Rumors began to spread throughout Rome that Caesar was striving to become king, that he would soon transfer the capital from Rome to Asia Minor. Many who were bypassed by ranks and ranks, as well as those who sincerely feared for the Roman Republic, made up a conspiracy in which about 60 people were involved. Having reached the heights of power and power, the divine Julius suddenly found himself in political isolation.

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March 15 (the famous "Ides of March") 44 BC Caesar in the Senate was killed by conspirators led by former Pompeians - Mark Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus, as well as the former Caesarian Decimus Junius Brutus. 23 wounds were inflicted on the all-powerful dictator by conspirators who rushed to him, who in the bustle crippled each other. And only one wound was fatal. But Rome, after the removal of Caesar, could not turn back, and all the efforts of the conspirators to return the old republic were in vain. Soon they themselves died (see the article "Ancient Rome").

Caesar was one of the most significant figures in the history of Rome. It is from him that the Roman Empire begins its first steps, which lasted another five centuries.

None of the subsequent Roman emperors could compare with the bright and amazing personality of Gaius Caesar from the Julius family, who sometimes committed recklessness with amazing frivolity, but went to the heights of power with incomprehensible firmness. Caesar is much more human than all the rulers of late Rome. He was capable of love and sincere mercy. It is precisely such, and not an arrogant stone statue and an embodied code of laws, that Gaius Julius Caesar appears before us - a writer and a talented diplomat, a brilliant commander and the all-powerful dictator of Rome, who managed to do so little and so much to ensure that his name remained for centuries.

In ancient Greece and Rome, the division of society into free people and slaves was natural. However, the understanding of what slavery is has changed. Initially, a slave was not considered a thing, but was almost a member of the family. Along with the free, he worked in the field and sat down at the table with them. The head of the family - the patriarch - controlled the life of all household members. The personality of the slave was protected by custom - no one had the right to treat him savagely. (Historians call such slavery patriarchal.)

The father of the family could give the slave freedom and a piece of land. Then the slave became a full member of the community. This is what the swineherd Eumeus, the slave of Odysseus, dreamed of. One of his few slaves, he remained loyal to his master during his wanderings.

A different system of slavery was established in Greece in the 5th-4th centuries. BC e. By this time, family ties no longer connected people so firmly. A new social organism arose - the ancient polis, the economy of which was unthinkable without the labor of slaves. They began to be imported from Scythia, Thrace, and other areas. In order not to give the impression that free people have completely stopped working, we should not forget that free peasants and slaves have always coexisted. At this time, the slave was no longer viewed as a member of the family: from now on he was a thing, the property of the master. Such slavery is called classical. It finally took shape in ancient Rome. The master could give the slave any job, sell, severely punish and even kill - no one was his judge, because. other slave owners did the same.

If the slave killed the master, then in this case it was supposed to execute all the slaves who were in the house - some on suspicion of complicity, others for not interfering with the criminal. However, here is the testimony of the Roman author Pliny the Younger: "No one can feel at ease because he is condescending and gentle: masters are destroyed not by their trial, but by their inclination to crime."
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Most of the slaves had no property: they worked on the owner's land, worked in his workshop; tools also belonged to the master. Whatever the slave produced, the master took away. However, he also took care of the slave, fed him, clothed him, gave a roof over his head; if it was necessary - treated. In order for the slave to work better, the owner sought to encourage the hardworking and conscientious. In the eyes of the slaves, even ordinary praise meant a lot, not to mention the best food and clothes. We can get an idea of ​​the attitude of slave owners towards slaves from Homer's poem "The Odyssey":

This was the name in Scandinavia for warriors who made campaigns in other countries. The Viking is a pirate and a warrior, a seeker of prey and glory that military exploits could bring him. They were called "northern people" in Europe, Normans in France, Danes in England, Askemanns in Germany, Varangians in Byzantium and Varangians in Russia. The homeland of the Vikings was the Scandinavian Peninsula in northern Europe. The land there was infertile, crop failures often occurred. The Scandinavians even had a cruel custom: in the famine years, babies, especially girls, were taken to the forest and left there to die.

Forests and mountains covering the territory of Scandinavia hindered the development of trade. Therefore, the Scandinavians (which included the Danes, Swedes and Norwegians) quickly mastered the sea routes along their indented bays (fjords) shores. They did not have a state, they lived in tribes. Each tribe had a military leader - jarl, or king, who had a permanent squad (by the way, the Russian word "prince" came precisely from the Scandinavian "king" - leader). The combatants took an oath of allegiance to the leader, violating which, they would cover themselves with indelible shame. To return from the battle in which the leader fell was a sign of cowardice, the most shameful act.

Gradually the population increased. But due to the poverty of nature, not everyone had enough land to feed themselves and their families. Young peasants were forced to leave their homes and become warriors. The sons of noble families were no exception, who had no choice but to seek wealth in a foreign land. The spirit of wandering, unprecedented treasures, stories about which were brought by fellow tribesmen who had been on trading expeditions, excited the imagination of young people. They gathered in squads, led by young yar-lams, in the hope of gaining fame and fortune. So by the 8th century. many "sea kings" appeared who had a squad, but no land. They became the first Vikings.

In 793, the Vikings attacked the English island of Lindisfarne, plundered and ravaged the monastery. Thus began the Viking Age, the invasion of the "northern people" to Europe, which was destined to last three centuries. All over Europe the clergy prayed: "God, deliver us from the fury of the Normans." It cannot be said that Europe for the first time faced robber attacks. But the numerous expeditions of the Vikings, their capture of new lands could only be compared with the invasion of the barbarians on the Roman Empire, the horrors of which had just begun to be forgotten.

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The Viking raids were at first unorganized, with few attackers. But even this was enough for the fragmented Europe to groan under the onslaught of their troops. In the ninth century the Vikings captured Ireland, England, ravaged and burned Nantes, Hamburg, Pisa, Chartres, and in 845 one of the most famous jarls - Ragnar Lodbrog - entered Paris. “Not a single city, not a single monastery remained untouched. Everyone took to flight. .. ”, - all the chronicles of that time are filled with similar complaints.

First, in England, and then throughout Europe, a feverish collection of “Danish money” begins to either pay off the Viking attack, or redeem the captured cities and lands from them. But the Normans are no longer satisfied with the random loot obtained from attacks on the coastal cities, which were pretty battered by them. They begin to fortify themselves on the coast, so that, making raids inland, they capture more and more new territories. Thus, in Northern England, Denlo was formed - an area of ​​​​Danish law, which was controlled by the Vikings and dominated by Scandinavian customs.

By the X century. Danish kings launched a massive offensive against Europe. The era of unorganized campaigns is over. The powerful united squads of the Scandinavians attacked the weak European states, taking one territory after another. No wonder the Danes were considered one of the most formidable invaders. Other Vikings were not far behind. The distant northern lands of Russia and the imperial Constantinople experienced the heavy hand of sea robbers.

In 911, the Viking jarl Rolf (Rollon) forced the king of France, Charles the Simple, to give him a fief (hereditary possession for military service) of the region of Northern France he had conquered, which later became known as Normandy. In Ireland, the Vikings founded the city of Dublin and conquered the entire east coast. 

The Vikings attacked Arab Spain and Italy. The descendants of the Vikings - the Normans - conquered Naples and the island of Sicily and formed the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies there. England had a particularly hard time, attacks on which continued for all three centuries of Norman campaigns. She never completely managed to get rid of the dominion of the invaders: in 1066, the descendant of Rollon, the Frenchized Norman William the Conqueror, conquered England, proclaiming himself its king.

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