Thursday, September 8, 2022

News update 08/09/2022 2

The most authoritative for the Hellenes was the epic poem "Iliad", attributed to the great Greek poet Homer, who lived in the VIII century. BC. It tells about one of the episodes of the final, tenth year of the siege of Troy-Ilion - this is the name of this Asia Minor city in the poem.

What do ancient legends tell about the Trojan War? It began by the will and fault of the gods. All the gods were invited to the wedding of the Thessalian hero Peleus and the sea goddess Thetis, except for Eris, the goddess of discord. The angry goddess decided to take revenge and threw a golden apple with the inscription "To the most beautiful" to the feasting gods. Three Olympian goddesses, Hera, Athena and Aphrodite, argued which of them it was meant for. Zeus ordered the young Paris, the son of the Trojan king Priam, to judge the goddesses. The goddesses appeared to Paris on Mount Ida, near Troy, where the prince was tending herds, and each tried to seduce him with gifts. Paris preferred the love offered to him by Aphrodite to Helen, the most beautiful of mortal women, and handed the golden apple to the goddess of love. Helena, daughter of Zeus and Leda, was the wife of the Spartan king Menelaus. Paris, who was a guest in the house of Menelaus, took advantage of his absence and, with the help of Aphrodite, convinced Helen to leave her husband and go with him to Troy. The fugitives took with them slaves and treasures of the royal house. About how Paris and Helen got to Troy, the myths tell in different ways. According to one version, three days later they arrived safely in the hometown of Paris. According to another, the goddess Hera, hostile to Paris, raised a storm on the sea, his ship skidded to the shores of Phoenicia, and only a long time later the fugitives finally arrived in Troy. There is another option: Zeus (or Hera) replaced Helen with a ghost, which Paris took away. Helen herself during the Trojan War was in Egypt under the protection of the wise old man Proteus. But this is a late version of the myth, the Homeric epic does not know it.
The Greek fleet, numbering a thousand ships, assembled at Aulis, a harbor in Boeotia. To ensure the fleet's safe sailing to the shores of Asia Minor, Agamemnon sacrificed his daughter Iphigenia to the goddess Artemis. Having reached the Troad, the Greeks tried to return Helen and the treasures by peaceful means. The tried diplomat Odysseus and the offended husband Menelaus went as messengers to Troy. The Trojans refused them, and a long and tragic war began for both sides. The gods also took part in it. Hera and Athena helped the Achaeans, Aphrodite and Apollo helped the Trojans.
Greki ne smogli srazu vzyat' Troyu, okruzhonnuyu moshchnymi krepostnymi sooruzheniyami. Oni postroili na beregu morya vozle svoikh korabley ukreplonnyy lager', stali razoryat' okrestnosti goroda i napadat' na soyuznikov troyantsev. Na desyatom godu osady proizoshlo dramaticheskoye sobytiye, povloksheye za soboy ser'yoznyye neudachi akheytsev v srazheniyakh s zashchitnikami Troi. Agamemnon oskorbil Akhilla, otobrav u nego plennitsu Briseidu, i tot, razgnevannyy, otkazalsya vykhodit' na pole boya. Nikakiye ugovory ne mogli ubedit' Akhilla ostavit' gnev i vzyat'sya za oruzhiye. Troyantsy vospol'zovalis' bezdeystviyem samogo smelogo i sil'nogo iz svoikh vragov i pereshli v nastupleniye, vozglavlyayemyye starshim synom tsarya Priama Gektorom. Sam tsar' byl star i ne mog prinimat' uchastiye v voyne. Pomogala troyantsam i obshchaya ustalost' akheyskogo voyska, uzhe desyat' let bezuspeshno osazhdavshego Troyu. Kogda Agamemnon, proveryaya boyevoy dukh voinov, pritvorno predlozhil prekratit' voynu i vernut'sya domoy, akheytsy vstretili predlozheniye s vostorgom i ustremilis' k svoim korablyam. I tol'ko reshitel'nyye deystviya Odisseya ostanovili voinov i spasli polozheniye.
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The Greeks could not immediately take Troy, surrounded by powerful fortifications. They built a fortified camp on the seashore near their ships, began to devastate the outskirts of the city and attack the allies of the Trojans. In the tenth year of the siege, a dramatic event occurred that resulted in serious setbacks for the Achaeans in battles with the defenders of Troy. Agamemnon insulted Achilles by taking away the captive Briseis from him, and he, angry, refused to enter the battlefield. No amount of persuasion could convince Achilles to leave his anger and take up arms. The Trojans took advantage of the inaction of the most courageous and strong of their enemies and went on the offensive, led by the eldest son of King Priam, Hector. The king himself was old and could not take part in the war. The Trojans were also helped by the general fatigue of the Achaean army, which had been unsuccessfully besieging Troy for ten years. When Agamemnon, testing the morale of the warriors, pretended to offer to stop the war and return home, the Achaeans greeted the offer with enthusiasm and rushed to their ships. And only the decisive actions of Odysseus stopped the soldiers and saved the situation. 
After the death of Achilles, a dispute begins among the Achaeans over the possession of his armor. They go to Odysseus, and, offended by this outcome, Ajax Telamonides commits suicide.

A decisive turning point in the war occurs after the arrival of the hero Philoctetes from the island of Lemnos and the son of Achilles Neoptolemus to the camp of the Achaeans. Philoctetes kills Paris, and Neoptolemus kills an ally of the Trojans, the Mysian Eurynil. Left without leaders, the Trojans no longer dare to go out to battle in the open field. But the powerful walls of Troy reliably protect its inhabitants. Then, at the suggestion of Odysseus, the Achaeans decided to take the city by cunning. A huge wooden horse was built, inside which a select detachment of warriors hid. The rest of the army, in order to convince the Trojans that the Achaeans are going home, burns their camp and sails on ships from the coast of Troad. In fact, the Achaean ships took refuge not far from the coast, near the island of Tenedos.
The Trojans broke into the Achaean camp and almost burned their ships. The closest friend of Achilles, Patroclus, begged the hero to give him his armor and chariot and rushed to the aid of the Greek army. Patroclus stopped the onslaught of the Trojans, but he himself died at the hands of Hector. The death of a friend makes Achilles forget about the offense. The thirst for revenge inspires him. Trojan hero Hector dies in a duel with Achilles. The Amazons come to the aid of the Trojans. Achilles kills their leader Penthesilea, but soon dies himself, as predicted, from the arrow of Paris, directed by the god Apollo. Achilles' mother Thetis, trying to make her son invulnerable, dipped him into the waters of the underground river Styx. She held Achilles by the heel, which remained the only vulnerable spot on his body. The god Apollo knew where to direct the arrow of Paris. It is to this episode of the poem that humanity owes the expression "Achilles' heel".

After the death of Achilles, a dispute begins among the Achaeans over the possession of his armor. They go to Odysseus, and, offended by this outcome, Ajax Telamonides commits suicide.

A decisive turning point in the war occurs after the arrival of the hero Philoctetes from the island of Lemnos and the son of Achilles Neoptolemus to the camp of the Achaeans. Philoctetes kills Paris, and Neoptolemus kills an ally of the Trojans, the Mysian Eurynil. Left without leaders, the Trojans no longer dare to go out to battle in the open field. But the powerful walls of Troy reliably protect its inhabitants. Then, at the suggestion of Odysseus, the Achaeans decided to take the city by cunning. A huge wooden horse was built, inside which a select detachment of warriors hid. The rest of the army, in order to convince the Trojans that the Achaeans are going home, burns their camp and sails on ships from the coast of Troad. In fact, the Achaean ships took refuge not far from the coast, near the island of Tenedos.
The victory over Carthage, and then over numerous commanders and kings in the Eastern Mediterranean region, turned Rome into the 2nd century. BC. into a world power. These victories further convinced the Romans of their superiority over the whole world. However, the Greeks regarded the Romans as barbarians* cruel, bloodthirsty and ignorant. These qualities were especially pronounced in the Romans' love for crude spectacles such as fisticuffs, baiting animals and gladiatorial battles. The custom of organizing gladiator fights in memory of the deceased appeared in Rome under the influence of the Etruscans. But then the deadly fights of armed people began to take place in the circus arena for the amusement of the audience.
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After the great conquests, the ancient manners and customs, in which the Romans were so proud, were severely tested by wealth and power. And they couldn't stand it. Victorious wars gave Rome huge booty: money, precious weapons, gold and silver utensils, works of art, many thousands of slaves - all this flowed to Rome in an endless stream. Warriors were enriched, and even more so were the victorious commanders. The soldiers proclaimed them emperors - winners, and the senate gave the right to a triumph - a solemn passage in a chariot, behind which the army marched and the booty stolen in the war swept. The conquered countries turned into Roman provinces, i.e. lands obtained by victory in the war and owned by the entire community. They were taxed, had to support the troops and governors located on their territory. The governors were appointed by the Senate from among the former senior magistrates. They usually returned to Rome with huge fortunes, and for ordinary citizens in the provinces there were great opportunities for enrichment.
However, Ashoka’s rock edict, left for posterity, read: “... And no matter how many people at the time when the Kalingans were subdued, killed or died, or taken away from there, even a hundredth of this number, even a thousandth of it now burdens the thought Pleasing to the gods ”(as Ashoka called himself). He repented of what he had done.

Ashoka, once merciless, in another edict instructs: "And if anyone harms, the Delightful One considers that it is necessary to spare, as much as possible to forgive." The unexpected metamorphosis of Ashoka is explained by the fact that the king became an adherent of Buddhism, a religion that arose in India in the 6th century. BC, and began to follow its rules.

India is also the birthplace of Hinduism, one of the oldest religions on earth, which originated in the 4th millennium BC. A distinctive feature of Hinduism is polytheism. The ancient Indians believed that the gods, like people, love delicious food, beautiful clothes, they are also friends and quarrel. Surya (god of the sun), Dyaus-Pitar (god of the sky), Ushas (goddess of the dawn), Parjanya (god of thunder), Sarasvati (goddess of the river of the same name), Agni (god of fire) are considered the gods of the most ancient origin. Indra was especially revered - the lord of rain, who defeated Vritra - the demon of drought. Later, the main gods of the Indians were Brahma (the beginning of all beginnings in the world), Shiva (the destroyer) and Vishnu (the guardian).
The ancient Indians imagined Vishnu as a beautiful young man reclining on the mythical snake Shesha, which swims in the waters of the cosmic ocean. Vishnu has four arms, in which he holds a conch, a wheel, a club and a lotus flower. Vishnu has the gift of transforming himself into animals and humans. Once, turning into a dwarf, Vishnu came to the demon king Bali and asked him to give him as much land as he could cover in three steps. Laughing, Bali willingly gave permission, but soon regretted it: the dwarf grew to a gigantic size and covered the sky with the first step, and the earth with the second. Seeing the horror of Bali, the magnanimous Vishnu did not take the third step.

High in the Himalayas on Mount Kailash, the god Shiva lives. His appearance is formidable - Shiva is entwined with cobras, dressed in a tiger skin, wears a necklace of skulls. He is many-sided and many-armed, on his forehead is an all-withering third eye. As the legend says, saving people, Shiva drank poison, and his neck turned blue. Therefore, it is often called "Blue-throated". Shiva has a trident in his hand, and he always performs accompanied by the bull Nandin. Shiva and his wife Parvati, which means "Goryanka", have two sons. The first is the four-armed Ganesha, an elephant-headed man riding a rat. Until now, Ganesha is revered as the god of wisdom and good luck. His brother, the war god Skanda, has six heads. He rides a huge peacock, holding a bow in one hand and arrows in the other.

The ancient Indians deified animals. The sacred cow Surabhi was especially revered, which means “Good-smelling” in translation. According to legend, this cow resides in the paradise of the god Indra. The Indians worshiped snakes - nagas. In modern India, there is a state called Nagaland - "Land of Serpents".

In ancient India, it was customary to visit holy places. It was considered a special virtue to visit Hardvar, the place where the Ganges River flows out onto the plain, and at least once in a lifetime, no matter how far a person lives, to bathe in its sacred waters.
Whoever conquered himself is his own ally, Whoever does not control himself, he, being at enmity, is hostile to himself.

The epic poem Ramayana, in contrast to the Mahabharata, is a single and coherent work attributed to the poet Valmiki. The Ramayana tells about the eldest son of King Dasaratha, Rama, who, due to the deceit of one of the royal wives, is forced to go into exile with his brother Lakshman and his faithful wife Sita. They lived in the forest, eating roots and fruits. The king of demons, the evil Ravana, kidnapped Sita and carried him away. In a terrible rage, Rama, united with the monkey leader Hanuman, kills the kidnapper and frees the beautiful Sita. Returning to the capital, Rama becomes king.

"Ramayana" and "Mahabharata" can be called an encyclopedia of the life of Ancient India: there is so much information about the country, people's customs, government and culture.

The ancient Indians were knowledgeable not only in literature, but also in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. It was they who gave the world chess.

The science of healing was called Ayurveda - "the science of long life." The ancient Indian physician was at the same time a botanist, a pharmacologist, a biologist, and a psychologist. Skilled surgeons, they not only removed arrows from wounds almost painlessly for the patient, but even restored the correct shape of noses and ears crippled in battle, i.e. did plastic surgery. Well, in the treatment of snake bites, Indian doctors knew no equal!
The most interesting monuments of architecture have come down to us from ancient times. Buddhist sanctuaries-stupas outwardly very much resemble a bell. When looking at them, thoughts about their cosmic origin unconsciously arise - they are so unusual. Their basis is an artificial mound, lined with bricks or covered with whitewashed plaster. The top of the structure crowns
The state of Shang-Yin, having existed from 1766 to 1122 BC, fell under the rule of the Zhou tribe, whose rulers, who ruled from 1122 to 247 BC, called themselves vans - kings. The first of these was U-van - "King Warrior". He handed out lands and titles to his comrades-in-arms: “gun”, “hou”, “bo”, “zi”, “nan”, which is similar to the European “duke”, “prince”, “count”, “baron”, “baronet”. Under the onslaught of neighboring tribes and their own tribal nobility, the Zhou kingdom broke up into destinies. This time (from 770 to 403 BC) the inhabitants of the Middle State sometimes called "Spring and Autumn".
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The rulers of the destinies fought with each other and with neighbors-foreigners, who were considered savages. Spring and Autumn were replaced by the hard times of the Warring States, which lasted almost two centuries - from 403 to 221 BC. The rulers of the seven kingdoms entered into a deadly fight. “In the battles for the capture of cities, the dead overwhelmed the cities,” wrote a contemporary, “and in the battles for the lands, the battlefields were completely covered with the bodies of the dead.” After one such battle near Changping in 260 BC. the warriors of the Qin kingdom buried alive 400 thousand warriors of the Zhao kingdom who had surrendered.

The kingdom of Qin emerged victorious from the war. His victories over his neighbors were facilitated by the new organization of the troops: there were young people in the attacking detachments, and elderly soldiers in the defenders.

Having conquered all six kingdoms of rivals and perpetrated massacre there, the ruler of Qin, the thirteen-year-old Zheng-wang, declared himself "huangdi" (lord, emperor) and began to be called Qin Shw-huangdi - the first emperor of Qin. In the lands subject to him, he put an end to the power of the specific rulers. The whole country was divided into regions, and those, in turn, into counties. The heads of the regions and counties were appointed from the capital and could be removed at any moment at the will of the Huangdi. In the former six kingdoms, tortoise shells, shells, and pieces of jasper were used as money. Qin Shi Huangdi ordered to pay only in gold and copper coins. Life in the state had to go according to general rules. The emperor introduced unified written signs, streamlined measures of weight and length, established the same gauge for wagons, approved laws binding on all, ordered all ritual utensils and weapons to be made according to a single model.
Over time, the possessions of Yamato increased. Wars of conquest were fought during the reign of Keiko (71-130 AD). His son, Prince Yamato-takeru, which means "Hero of Yamato", fought against the recalcitrant tribes - Kumaso on the island of Kyushu and Ebi-su on the island of Hokkaido.
16-year-old boy with a squad of skilled archers Yamato-takeru went on a campaign against kumaso. Before that, he showed himself at home: he killed his twin brother for disobedience to the king-father.

Yamato-takeru dealt with two recalcitrant kumaso leaders by resorting to cunning. To one he entered under the guise of a beautiful girl, and when the leader of the kumaso became drunk during the feast, he stabbed him in the heart with a dagger. With another, the prince made friends for the sake of appearance, but during the bath he killed him defenseless.

In Hokkaido, Yamato-takeru fought for 10 years with rebellious ebisus. To accomplish the legendary feats, the prince was helped by his aunt, Yamato-hime, the high priestess of the shrine in Ise. She gave her nephew a magic flint and the sword of the hurricane god Susayaoo, which later became known as "Kusanagi" - "Healing Grass" or "Grass Slayer". The legend tells that one day the enemies set fire to thickets of tall grass in which Yamato-takeru was hiding. The fire was getting closer, then the prince began to cut the burning grass with his sword and in the end escaped death.

Yamato-takeru died of his wounds in a foreign land. Before his death, he wrote to the king: “I am lying among the fragrant fields, but I do not care about life. I only regret that I can’t appear before you…” These words sound the courage and devotion of a warrior, which Yamato-takeru left as a legacy to his descendants.

Wars played an important role in strengthening the power of the reigning Yamato family. During campaigns, the king or his closest relatives became the head of the militia. The lion's share of the captured booty went to the king and his relatives, to the temples, where, again, people from the royal house served as priests. Prisoners of war cultivated the royal lands or were included in the category of artisans, many of whom worked for the royal family.

As a result of the aggressive campaigns of Yamato, the elders of the defeated foreigners became subordinate to the rulers of Yamato, their tributaries. To strengthen their power in the conquered lands, the Yamato kings appointed their relatives there as rulers, who proved themselves to be brave or capable people.
At the end of six months, the dictator was obliged to withdraw his powers and submit a report to the people's assembly on his actions.

The Romans made up legends about the simplicity of the manners of the ancient dictators. Let's take one of them. In 458 BC, when the Italic tribe of the Equi surrounded the Roman army on Mount Algid, the senate appointed Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus as dictator. This man did not know anything about such a high appointment, he was found plowing his own field: in the eyes of the Romans, this work was honorable. It was a hot day, and Cincinnatus worked completely naked. In this form, the messengers found him. Having learned what was the matter, he wiped off the sweat, dressed and at the head of a small detachment attacked the enemies. When the Roman army was saved, Cincinnatus resigned as dictator and returned to plowing.
Especially often dictators were appointed in the IV century. BC, when the Romans had to repel the invasion of the Gauls, as well as fight with neighboring Italic tribes. From the time of the Second Punic War until the 1st c. BC. the post of dictator remained unfilled.

From the beginning of the civil wars, which shook the Roman state to its foundations, the nature of the dictatorship changed dramatically. This position now only covered the personal arbitrariness of political leaders, who aspired to it only in order to give the legal character to their own sole power. The attitude of the Romans to this position also changed: from now on, the image of Cincinnatus evoked in them a feeling of hopeless longing for the good old days.

In 82 BC Lucius Cornelius Sulla (see Art. "Marius and Sulla") achieved the adoption of a law that, bypassing all republican traditions, gave him, under the plausible pretext of the need to issue laws and establish a state, a dictatorship for an indefinite period and, moreover, with the broadest powers. Sulla received not only the usual right for a dictator to legislate. He had the right to appoint magistrates (and earlier the dictator could only control their activities), conducted foreign policy (in the previous period, the dictators did not do this), and, which the dictators of the past did not even dare to dream of, Sulla received the right to freely dispose of the life and property of citizens .

In 44 BC Caesar, also for the first time in Roman history, received a lifetime magistracy from the senate. Together with other high positions - the emperor, the supreme commander and the great pontiff (high priest) - the dictatorship became the basis of his almost monarchical power.

After the assassination of Caesar in 44 BC. Mark Antony, the dictator's de facto successor, passed a law that banned dictatorship forever. From now on, the person who seized this position, as well as the one who nominated the dictator, was awaiting the death penalty.

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https://telegra.ph/News-update-12092019-190-02-23
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среда, 15 апреля 2020 г.

English columns 15/04/2020


The dissatisfaction of the Parisians acquired a political coloring. Responsibility for shortcomings in the supply of food to the city, for all sorts of abuses, they placed - and not unreasonably - on the government. He was condemned primarily for a military policy that did not bring success. For the Parisians, despite the hardships of the siege, remained patriots - in that special, militant sense that the volunteers of 1792 put into this word. In their opinion, it would be a betrayal to lay down their arms before defeating the enemy. As soon as it became known about a new attempt by the government to enter into peace negotiations, an uprising broke out in Paris. On October 31, 1870, soldiers of the National Guard arrested and held the ministers hostage for several hours until they were rescued by troops loyal to the government.

Now the government was almost more concerned with appeasing restless Parisians than with national defence. The uprising of 31 October thwarted the plan for an armistice prepared by Adolphe Thiers. French troops unsuccessfully tried to break the blockade of Paris. By the beginning of 1871, the situation of the besieged capital looked hopeless. The government decided that it was impossible to delay further with the conclusion of peace. In order to neutralize the opposition, it banned the democratic clubs of Paris and several newspapers that especially annoyed it. On January 22, 1871, the Parisians responded to the repressions with a new attempt at an uprising. Only his defeat finally untied the hands of the government-

On January 28, an armistice was signed between France and united Germany (on January 18, 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles of the French kings, the Prussian king Wilhelm I was proclaimed the German emperor). Under its terms, the forts of Paris and the army's stockpiles of weapons were transferred to the Germans. On February 8, elections were scheduled for the National Assembly of France, which was supposed to approve the peace treaty.

The elections gave a decisive advantage to the representatives of the right-wing, conservative parties who advocated the early signing of peace - the monarchists and part of the Republicans who were in solidarity with them on this issue. Thiers was appointed head of the executive branch by the National Assembly. Already on February 26, he presented to the Deputies the preliminary peace conditions agreed with Bismarck. They provided for the cession of Alsace and part of Lorraine to Germany, as well as the payment of 5 billion francs indemnity. The National Assembly approved these conditions. The peace was finally signed in Frankfurt on May 10, 1871.
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The indignation of the Parisians at the terms of the peace was all the greater because they suspected the National Assembly and the government of Thiers of striving for the restoration of the monarchy. At the time, many Democrats sought protection from reaction in the decentralization of power. Therefore, the slogan of granting the French capital self-government, which it had been deprived of since the time of the Empire, gained popularity. The National Guard, which even the Germans were afraid of, acted as the defender of the interests of Paris: at the conclusion of the truce, they did not insist on its disarmament. The National Guard was also the most organized political force in the capital. On February 24, the Republican Federation of the National Guard emerged, headed by the Central Committee. In fact, the leadership of the opposition movement was concentrated in it.

Despite the seriousness of disagreements with the government, no one in Paris thought about an armed uprising, much less prepared it. But the actions of the authorities added fuel to the fire. After the blockade was lifted, the payment of remuneration to the soldiers of the National Guard was stopped. In a city whose economy has not yet recovered from the consequences of the blockade, thousands of residents were left without a livelihood. When the National Assembly canceled the debt collection deferment, in a matter of days, 150,000 debt obligations were presented for payment! The pride of the inhabitants of the capital was hurt by the decision of the National Assembly to choose Versailles as its place of residence.

Playing on the nerves of the Parisians, the government itself pushed them to impulsive actions. At dawn on March 18, 1871, on his orders, the troops tried to capture the artillery of the National Guard, concentrated on the Montmartre hill. The soldiers were stopped by the inhabitants and retreated without a fight. But the unthinkable happened. Generals Lecomte and Thomas, who commanded government troops, were captured by the guards and shot on the same day.

This was enough for Thiers to order the evacuation of government offices to Versailles. Following them, many representatives of the wealthy and idle classes left the capital. The Central Committee of the National Guard remained the only authoritative force in Paris. He temporarily assumed power, at the same time scheduling elections for the Paris Commune for March 26 (as the city government of the French capital was traditionally called). In the remaining time, the mayors of the Parisian districts, other politicians of the republican persuasion tried to reconcile the Central Committee with the Versailles government, seeking the consent of the latter to hold elections. But unsuccessfully. The government made it clear that it considered the Parisian opposition to be criminals who rebelled against the legal order, with whom one could speak only in the language of cannons.
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Since government supporters boycotted the March 26 elections, only a minority of voters took part in the vote - 229,000 out of 485,000 on the lists. 86 people were elected to the Commune, but 20 soon resigned. Therefore, on 16 April by-elections were held. Among the members of the Commune there were famous people, such as the participants in the revolution of 1848, Louis-Charles Delescluze and Felix Pia, or the artist Gustave Courbet. The names of the majority did not say anything to the general public. By the way, only a few of them left a mark on the history of the labor movement at the end of the 19th century: Edouard Vaillant, Leo Frankel, Eugene Pottier. The members of the Commune were by profession officials, doctors, journalists, lawyers, workers. Politically, they belonged to the Proudhonists (supporters of the socialist Proudhon), the Neo-Jacobins and the Blanquists. At the same time, some of them were members of sections of the International Association of Workers


(I International). Political differences hampered the work of the Commune. Pretty soon, a "majority" and a "minority" were formed in it, the clashes of which more than once threatened the unity of the Communards.


The Commune declared its intention to carry out deep reforms, for which more than one generation of French democrats - republicans and socialists - fought. Their simple list is impressive: the replacement of the standing army with the armament of the people, the democratization of the state apparatus (including the election and turnover of officials), the fair organization of labor, the separation of church and state, the introduction of free, compulsory and secular education, etc. No matter how one evaluates the plans of the Commune - sometimes utopian - it is clear that their scale far exceeded the modest possibilities of the Parisian reformers. In many ways, therefore, they have not advanced in their implementation beyond declarations and the first modest steps. The activities of the Commune to meet the urgent socio-economic requirements of the population of the capital turned out to be more fruitful. Among the measures taken by her, the expediency of which is difficult to dispute, are the cancellation of arrears on rent, the gratuitous return to the owners of things pledged in a pawnshop in the amount of no more than 20 francs, the introduction of a three-year installment plan for commercial loans, etc. However, this was not without curiosities, which include an attempt to legally abolish night work in bakeries.

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Is it even possible to strictly judge the chaotic reform attempts undertaken by the Commune, if its main, all-consuming concern was war? In early April, clashes began between the federates, as the fighters of the armed detachments of the Commune called themselves, with the troops of Versailles. Until mid-May, they did not bring decisive success to either side. But the forces were obviously unequal. After failing to enlist the support of the province, the Communards could only rely on themselves. On the other hand, the Versailles government received assistance from the command of the German army with weapons, ammunition and soldiers from among the French prisoners of war released ahead of schedule.

Opponents seemed to be trying to outdo each other in cruelty and excesses. Having learned that the Versaillese were shooting the captured Communards, the Paris Commune adopted a decree on hostages, threatening reprisals against the innocent residents of the capital, who were only suspected of sympathizing with Versailles. Already after the fighting began on the streets of Paris and the days of the Commune were numbered, some of the hostages were shot, among them the Archbishop of Paris, many Dominican priests and monks. Such inhuman actions have no justification, as well as the unprecedented vandalism shown by the Communards during street fighting. They deliberately set fire to a number of buildings in the center of the capital, including the city hall, the Palace of Justice, the Tuileries Palace, the Ministry of Finance, and Thiers' house. Countless cultural and artistic treasures perished in the fire. Arsonists also attempted on the treasures of the Louvre. As for the Versaillese, these days they poured blood over the streets of Paris. The victims of their terror were tens of thousands of citizens who were killed in battle, shot by the verdict of a court-martial or without trial or investigation at all. Tens of thousands of others were sentenced to imprisonment, hard labor or exile.

"Bloody Week" May 21-28, 1871 not only completed the short history of the Paris Commune, but also summed it up. The stubbornness of politicians who did not want to compromise, and the self-conceit of the people's leaders who believed in their historical mission, cost France dearly. Human memory is extremely selective. For some, the Commune has forever remained a gloomy, tragic page in the history of France, for others - a bright celebration of the triumph of democracy and justice.
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Georges Clemenceau (1841-1929) - one of the most influential political and statesmen of France of his time, nicknamed the "tiger" for the passion that he put into the fight.

All his life Clemenceau loved the Vendée, a department in the far west of France, where he was born on September 28, 1841, in the town of Muyeron-en-Pare. Here he spent his childhood and youth. This is where his family roots were. Great-grandfather Georges, who served as a doctor, did not miss the opportunity to make a career under Emperor Napoleon I. His father, also a doctor, was a staunch Republican and an opponent of both the monarchy of Louis Philippe and the empire of Napoleon III. His ideal was the Jacobin Republic, and his idol was Robespierre. Under the influence of his father, the son also became an admirer of the revolution and a supporter of the republic.

Clemenceau did not hesitate in choosing a profession. He continued the family tradition here as well. After graduating from the lyceum, he entered the medical school in Nantes, and in 1860 - at the medical faculty of the University of Paris - Sorbonne, from where he left five years later with a medical degree. But instead of taking up professional activities, in 1865 he went on a trip to the United States of America. Part of the reason for this was the trouble with the authorities that arose in his student years. For organizing an anti-government demonstration, Clemenceau was arrested and spent two and a half months behind bars.

But above all, he was guided by an interest in the democratic institutions of the North American Republic, whose authority in his eyes had only been raised by the recent abolition of slavery in the course of the North-South war. Clemenceau spent three years overseas, moving from place to place, earning his livelihood either by correspondence in Parisian newspapers, or by French lessons at a women's college, one of whose students, Mary Plummer, he eventually married.

Acquaintance with America turned out to be instructive for Clemenceau. Not that she disappointed him. But he realized that the republican form of government in itself does not guarantee either the purity of morals or true democracy, but only a condition for the constant struggle for democracy.

The reorganization of the church began, as it were, gradually, it was not always noticeable and at first did not seem dangerous to the triumphant empire. Reforming popes succeeded each other in Rome, declaring the need to purify the church, renew the faith, and return to the simplicity of the manners of the early Christians. The German emperors treated such ideas very favorably, since by "simplicity of morals" they understood obedience to their power. However, the true intentions of the reformers were different. The most famous of them, the monk Hildebrand, who later became Pope under the name of Gregory VII (1073-1085), declared: "The Lord did not say: My name is Custom." Gregory meant by this that the time of "custom", feudal arbitrariness, power based on brute force, had come to an end. The papal state intended to rely now on another power - the power of the righteous, casting out the demon from the possessed, and this, according to the same Gregory, could not be done by any king and emperor. "Custom", feudal law, was the demon that the Pope intended to cast out of Christendom.

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The "devil's spell" began in 1059, when a church council in Rome established a new procedure for electing popes. Now the Pope was elected by a meeting of cardinals - the highest clergy of the Catholic Church; the emperor could not influence their decision. Cardinals, in turn, could only be appointed by the Pope, who occupies the Holy See. The Council also spoke out against secular sovereigns confirming bishops appointed by the Pope. The Church was turning into a self-governing state independent of anyone, a "Christian republic" covering almost all of Europe. The emperors had nothing to object to this on the merits - they were reminded that the early church of Christ was also independent of the secular authorities.

Nevertheless, the emperors were stubborn. Then in Rome they announced that any secular power comes from the Devil, and demanded unquestioning obedience. And an unprecedented thing happened: shocked Europe learned that Emperor Henry IV humbly begged Pope Gregory VII for forgiveness on his knees. The fantastic dreams of the Roman reformers were beginning to take shape. Why did this happen?

First, by the end of the XI century. European society itself has changed significantly. It became much more colorful and complex, it was more and more difficult to manage it in the old way. Therefore, the idea of ​​the primacy of the Roman pontiff over secular sovereigns unexpectedly found many supporters among the laity.

Secondly, the Popes managed to turn the Holy See into the best organized state of the then Europe. The state machine of Rome was impeccably debugged; many of the royal chancelleries of the Middle Ages were later modeled after the papal one; notaries and lawyers of the Holy See were highly regarded in all European countries.

Thirdly, the popes succeeded in winning over a significant part of the petty chivalry. These people also did not like the "custom", which made them rigidly dependent on powerful lords. In addition, for decades, the papacy has been intensively introducing into the consciousness of chivalry the idea of ​​"the army of Christ", in which chivalrous courage would be put at the service of the goals and ideals of the entire Christian society. The efforts of the church ended in success: in 1095, the “army of Christ” enthusiastically responded to the call of Pope Urban II (1088-1099) to march on Jerusalem (see the article “Crusaders and Crusades”).
at