The political views of the young Nasser (as, indeed, of his friends) at that time were confused and contradictory. On the one hand, he was attracted by the ideas of Western democracy, on the other hand, by the solidity and discipline of peoples ruled by the iron hand of dictatorship. On the one hand, he was impressed by the views of Arab nationalists on the "special path of the Arabs", on the other hand, he wanted to rely on the support of the international organization "Muslim Brotherhood", which advocated the return of the Egyptians to the traditions of early Islam from the time of the Prophet Muhammad. Perhaps only hostility towards the British, who settled in Egypt as masters, was unchanged by Nasser. One of his closest comrades, Anvar al-Sadat, during the Second World War even went to cooperate with German agents. Trying to harm Britain, he promised to transmit data on the location of British troops in Egypt to Field Marshal Rommel's headquarters, but was arrested. Nasser did not take such rash steps. His service was smooth and calm. He climbed the ladder of the ranks of an infantry officer, graduated from the school of military instructors, an administrative school, a staff college, then taught tactics at this institution. But at the same time, he gathered military men around him - people who, like him, from families of peasants with an average income, officials and intellectuals, established ties between them, putting together an organization for future actions.
On the fronts of the Arab-Israeli battles, which quickly revealed the superiority of the Israelis, Nasser and other Egyptian officers became convinced of the inability of King Farouk to protect the Arabs, came to the conclusion that the king was under the influence of the West. The Free Officers organization included captains, majors, and a small number of higher ranks. Their age was, as a rule, about thirty or slightly over thirty years old. They were preparing for decisive measures in order to win the Egyptians a worthy place in their native country and the Arab nation in the world.
The coup on July 23, 1952 was very successful, the transfer of power into the hands of the officers was carried out without bloodshed. But the Council of the Revolutionary Command did not have any program of action. Nasser imagined that the entire Egyptian society was a single family in which there were “good and bad” people. Therefore, the task of any Egyptian statesman should be to establish good relations in the country, help the good and punish the bad. The Egyptian revolution, in his opinion, is called upon to become pan-Arab. There should not be any political parties in Egypt, because it was precisely this that gave foreigners the opportunity to adversely influence the life of the country, have their agents there and, with their help, destroy everything that was useful that was created by the patriots.
It is noteworthy, therefore, that Nasser and his inner circle, having come to power, first of all banned the activities of parties - even the Muslim Brotherhood, which claimed to be the ideological leaders of the anti-foreign revolution. Arabism came to the fore. It was proclaimed that the Arabs were united not only by a common language and religion, but also by a common history and destiny. *Nah-zero Arab! (“We are Arabs!”) was the slogan propagated by the new leadership.
But how to achieve the creation of a just, wealthy and independent Arab society was still unclear. In 1952, Nasser first wanted to consolidate his position as the country's political leader and then really think about the future. In the first two years after the establishment of the power of nationalist officers, General Mohammed Naguib was the official leader of Egypt, Lieutenant Colonel Nasser became deputy prime minister, and from May 1953 - simultaneously the minister of the interior. The law on agrarian reform, promulgated in September 1952, was the first step of the new government, then a decision was made to abolish the monarchy. However, when the Revolutionary Command Council decided to liquidate the parliament, believing that the “talk of politicians” would slow down the transformation in the country, it came to an open clash between Naguib and Nasser. The general, who advocated the preservation of parliament and the free operation of political parties, was sent under house arrest, and the 36-year-old lieutenant colonel became president of the country. He was already very popular among the fellah who received the long-awaited land.
In October 1954, an agreement was signed on the withdrawal of British troops from Egypt, and in June 1956 the last British soldier left the Suez Canal zone. This extremely important zone in all respects was a real gold mine for the British, who controlled it. The canal company was a real "state within a state", not subject to local laws, although it was considered an Egyptian enterprise. On the contrary, the company dictated the laws to Egypt. Until 1952, the government, as a rule, was not approved by the court until the president of the company had his say. It gave a huge profit - in 1955, the shareholders received 33 million pounds, and Egypt accounted for only 5 million. In the years after the Second World War, 1/6 of the world's shipping, 1/4 of the % of French trade, most of US oil transportation.
When, in July 1956, dissatisfied with the growing nationalism of Egypt, American leaders announced that they were depriving Egypt of promised loans for the construction of the Aswan Dam, Nasser proclaimed the transfer of the Suez Canal company into the hands of the state. Such a step, which produced a real shock in the West, was characteristic of a proud and sensitive president. Far from always, in his actions, he was guided by a sober calculation, often relying on instant decisions dictated by anger or resentment. Sometimes they put Egypt before serious trials.
In October 1956, Israel attacked Egypt, and soon it was essentially supported by Britain and France. The "Suez Crisis", as it came to be called, was resolved only after the intervention of the USSR and
The United States, which understood the danger of military operations in this region. Nevertheless, Nasser brought the matter to an end. Moreover, the government announced the forced "Egyptization" of British and French banks, insurance companies, commercial and industrial firms, etc. This was already a real challenge to the West from Arab nationalism. Nasser believed that such steps would bring popular popularity to the new government. In the eyes of the Egyptians, he and his associates became national heroes, people capable of standing up for the dignity of their native country.
Meanwhile, in Germany, Hitler comes to power and the Second World War becomes inevitable. De Gaulle anticipates the impending danger, but, alas, not everyone listens to his warnings.
Being engaged in military pedagogical activity, he presented a number of theoretical works on strategy and tactics, proposed a new model for the interaction of various branches of the armed forces. In 1937 de Gaulle became a colonel. Two years later, with World War II unleashed, Germany strikes at France as well; in 1940, having broken the resistance, the Germans forced the French army to retreat. De Gaulle is promoted to the rank of general. The newly minted brigadier general in command of the division insists on continuing the war, although the government is inclined to stop it. During de Gaulle's stay in London, where he flew to seek Churchill's support, news comes that the French government has concluded a truce with Hitler. De Gaulle made an appeal on the radio to fight against fascism. He himself remains in England (his family also moves there). The organization "Free French" (later renamed "Fighting France") is formed, the motto of which was the words "Honor and Homeland". De Gaulle is doing a great job of developing the Resistance movement, negotiating the unification of various groups, speaking on the radio (in France, he is sentenced to death in absentia for "desertion"). The indefatigable general, together with Giraud, "the civil and military commander in chief", establishes the French Committee of National Liberation (FKNO), forms the Provisional Government of France. The committee and the government were recognized by the countries - allies in the anti-Hitler coalition: England, the USSR and the USA. In the summer of 1944, the expulsion of the occupiers from France begins. On August 25, Paris was liberated, on the same day de Gaulle arrived there. He solemnly lights a fire on the tomb of the Unknown Soldier near the Arc de Triomphe, which was extinguished earlier by the invaders. Democratic freedoms liquidated during the years of occupation are being restored in the country, and de Gaulle's name is associated with the victory over fascism in World War II.
During this period, the struggle of various political parties for power begins in France. In January 1946, experiencing great difficulties in implementing his plans, de Gaulle resigned as head of government. But he was not going to lay down his arms: he presents his draft of a new constitution to the country, speaks in Strasbourg, leads the United French People (RPF) party he formed, calling for the creation of a “new France”, to reform state institutions, dissolve the National Assembly and hold parliamentary elections . The RPF remains in opposition, de Gaulle seeks to return power by legal means, but this is not quickly possible, and some of the party members "cool" towards de Gaulle's candidacy. In 1953, disillusioned with the propaganda activities of his supporters and disbanding the RPF, de Gaulle retired from active political activity for a while. He communicates and conducts correspondence with relatives, visits Paris (living in Colombey). The life of the general is simple and modest, and the American car donated by the President of the United States has long been sold.
Gradually the situation is changing. In Algeria, a colony of France, a war of independence broke out. The French government was unable to suppress it, which caused a lot of reproaches in its address. In May 1958, during a period of acute political crisis, de Gaulle's supporters launched an agitation for his return to power. De Gaulle, remaining a flexible and wise politician, meets with the leaders of various parties and with the President of the Fourth Republic. He put forward before the National Assembly the principles on which, in his opinion, the new constitution should be based. A successful "yes" vote moved the hero of the Resistance even closer to the coveted post. In December 1958 de Gaulle was elected president of the republic for a seven-year term. Algeria gained independence. De Gaulle is pursuing a course towards the independence of France in matters of European and world politics. Gradually alienates France from NATO, conducts the first tests of nuclear weapons (in the Sahara), pays great attention to the idea of uniting European countries, condemns the Israeli attack on the Arab states, the US war in Vietnam. In 1964, the President of France made a great trip to all the countries of South America.
The elections were approaching. And de Gaulle, having some doubts, puts forward his candidacy. He practically does not participate in the election campaign. To the persistent persuasion of supporters to speak on television, he answers: “Well, what can I say? My name is Charles de Gaulle, I am 75 years old And yet, after the second round of elections, it was he who won, becoming the first President of France, elected by popular vote.
In 1966, de Gaulle visited the USSR (having even visited the Baikonur cosmodrome). And in 1968, massive student unrest swept France; barricades were built, there were clashes with the police. At the demonstrations there were calls for the resignation of the president. But this time, he managed to change the situation in his favor. De Gaulle went for reforms. One of the obviously unsuccessful projects - on the new territorial-administrative structure of France and the reorganization of the Senate - was submitted to a referendum with the condition that if it was rejected, the president would resign. With a kind of fatalism, de Gaulle was waiting for "the verdict", saying to his son: "The French are tired of me, and I am tired of them." The project was rejected by 52% of voters on April 27, 1968.
After retiring, de Gaulle again took up his memoirs. He spent most of his time in the countryside. Without losing interest in anything, he is increasingly immersed in memories of the past. On a cloudy day in 1970, the cards fell out of the general's hands: his heart stopped. The next day, the President of the Republic, Georges Pompidou, said to his compatriots: “Frenchwomen and Frenchmen. General de Gaulle died. France is widowed."
The ashes of a faithful son of France rest in a quiet rural cemetery in Colombey-les-deux-Eglises, almost 300 km from Paris.
Mohandas was the youngest child in the family and recalled his childhood as follows: “I was very shy and avoided the company of children. My only friends were books and lessons... I literally ran home (from school) because I couldn't stand talking to anyone... Besides, I was a coward. I was afraid of thieves, ghosts and snakes... Darkness terrified me... As far as I remember, I myself did not have a very good opinion of my abilities. I used to be surprised when I received awards or scholarships. At the same time, I was extremely proud, the slightest remark brought tears to my eyes.
The timid, shy boy was distinguished by unchildlike firmness and independence of thought. He was 11 years old when he realized that he could not agree with one of the Indian traditions. For a long time in India there was a class of "untouchables" - people doing the dirtiest work. They were forbidden to visit Hindu temples, drink water from the same source with caste Hindus. They had to wear a bell around their neck to warn of their presence. Untouchability was passed from parents to children, and it was impossible to leave this estate.
Like all Indian children, Mohandas' parents forbade him to communicate with the "untouchables". “Naturally, I obeyed, but objected with a smile that untouchability was not sanctified by religion and could not be sanctified. I was a very obedient child, but, as far as respect for my parents allowed me, I entered into an argument with them about this, ”Gandhi recalled. After many years, it was he who managed to convince the Indians to abandon this cruel prejudice.
One of the strongest childhood shocks was an early marriage according to the Indian tradition - at the age of 13, Mohandas was married to a girl of the same age as Kasturbai. Fortunately, the children fell in love with each other, and Kasturbay was a friend and assistant to her husband until the end of her life.
In 1888, Gandhi, on the advice of family friends and relatives, decided to go to England to get a serious education and the profession of a lawyer. This decision provoked a sharp protest from the elders of his caste. Religion forbade leaving India, in addition, the elders were sure that it was impossible to live in Europe without violating the precepts of faith. Gandhi did not comply with their demands. For this, he was excommunicated from the caste and could no longer count on her help and support.
In England, he felt very lonely, everything around him was alien. At the same time, communication with European culture opened up new horizons for him. He was introduced to Buddhism, was shocked by the New Testament, and dreamed of uniting Hinduism with the teachings of Buddha and Christ.
In 1891, having received the highest degree in law, Gandhi returned to India. However, the hopes of relatives for his high position and solid income did not materialize. Gandhi's honesty and responsibility did not help his career.
Soon the young lawyer accepts an offer from an Indian trading firm to handle its business in South Africa. He is attracted by the opportunity to see a new country and gain experience.
SOUTH AFRICA
Going to South Africa in 1893, Gandhi did not suspect that he was going to meet his true vocation and his destiny.
Relations between the Chinese authorities and the British were further aggravated by the incident on the Kowloon Peninsula (Kowloon). A Chinese man died after a fight with English sailors. The chief inspector of English trade in China, Elliot, refused to extradite the guilty sailors to a Chinese court. Lin Zexu responded by ordering a boycott of British goods and a halt to food supplies to the British.
In September-November 1839 there were battles between English ships and Chinese junks. Bogdykhan banned all British trade in China. Skirmishes did not stop, and both sides prepared for war. Lin Zexu purchased guns from the Americans and the Portuguese. Fireships were prepared - boats or rafts with burning brushwood or other combustible material. In the narrowest places of the Pearl River, wooden piles were driven into the bottom, which were pulled together with chains. Hidden under water, they were supposed to serve as a barrier to English ships. This technique was widely used by the Chinese in the wars of antiquity and the Middle Ages. In January 1840, Queen Victoria, in her speech from the throne at the opening of Parliament, announced the support of the British government for Captain Elliot's actions in China. With the Queen's blessing, Foreign Secretary Palmerston single-handedly decided to go to war against China.
In June 1840, an English military squadron was already plying Chinese waters. The interventionists brutally plundered Dinghai, the main city of the Zhoushan archipelago. On January 29, 1841, the Bogdykhan declared war on England.
Military operations unfolded in the province of Guangdong. The intervention was opposed by the local population. With the arrival of reinforcements, the British are expanding their operations in East China, in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. They captured Shanghai, but on the outskirts of Nanjing they were put up with courageous resistance by the garrison of Zhenjiang. At the end of the siege, his surviving soldiers and officers killed their family members and then committed suicide. General Hai Ling set his house on fire and died in the blaze.
By threatening to bombard Nanking with artillery, the British commander Pottinger intimidated the Chinese command, although it had a large army in the city.
Anglo-Chinese negotiations began in Nanjing. They ended with the signing of a peace treaty on August 29, 1842 aboard the English warship Cornwall. It received the name "Nanjing" and put an end to the first "opium" war of 1840-1842.
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Under the terms of this agreement, China opened five seaports for English trade: Guangzhou, Amoy, Fuzhou, Ningbo and Shanghai. In these so-called "open ports" the British received the right to unlimited trade, freedom of settlements. China ceded the island of Hong Kong to England. He had to pay the cost of the opium destroyed in 1839, the lost property of the British, military expenses incurred, and pledged to release all English prisoners. Bogdykhan promised to pardon his subjects who helped the enemy. Favorable rates were introduced in ports open to trade. The Treaty of Nanjing completely passed over in silence opium, which was a pretext for war. However, after the end of the war, the import of this drug into China increased. In the year of the conclusion of the Nanjing Treaty, 33,508 boxes were received, in 1843 - 42,699.
In the first armed clash with developed capitalist England, the backward feudal Qing Empire was defeated. The technical and economic backwardness of China had a particularly noticeable effect on the state of armament of the Qing army. The fleet consisted of obsolete wooden ships and boats, while the English squadron had steamers completely unknown in China. The Chinese cannons, bulky and outdated, could only fire with a fixed sight. Chinese soldiers could oppose English mortars, rifles and carbines only with antediluvian matchlock and flintlock guns, bows, spears, sabers and cleavers.
The course of the war, which was unfavorable for the Qing Empire, was largely facilitated by the defeatist moods that were widespread at the court.
Other countries hurried to take advantage of the fruits of the British victory. The United States and France sent their naval forces to the coast of China during the war. After the signing of the Treaty of Nanking, the American and French representatives entered into negotiations with the Chinese authorities, seeking the same rights as the British.
In October 1856, the Chinese authorities in search of opium detained the ship "Arrow" ("Arrow"). The Hong Kong-registered vessel sailed under the British flag. Chinese officials tore down the British flag and several of the crew were taken prisoner as suspected piracy.
To consolidate the victory, the first consul decided to restore his conquests in Italy, once again taking it away from Austria. On June 14, 1800, the Battle of Marengo took place, ending in a brilliant victory. Italy again belonged to France. In 1802, peace was concluded with England. The people rejoiced. One could enjoy a peaceful life after so many successful victories.
However, the title of consul, even for life, no longer suited Bonaparte. He wanted more. And in May 1804, the consul for life was proclaimed emperor of the French Republic, and since 1808 - of the French Empire, under the name of Napoleon I. Having laid the crown on himself on December 2, 1804, he decided to conquer the world. This required a war. The occasion was not long in coming. Napoleon caused outrage throughout monarchist Europe by shooting a member of the former French royal family, the Duke of Enghien. In addition, he quarreled with Alexander I, the Russian emperor. Again, more than half of Europe took up arms against France. But now there was a man at the head of France who wanted war. “The war was so much his element that when he prepared it or led it, he always gave the impression of a person living a full life” (E.V. Tarle).
With the formation of the Delian (First Athenian) Union, hostilities against the troops of the Achaemenid state either fade, then again become more active. The most significant milestones of the final stages of the Greco-Persian wars are the naval victories of the Athenians at the mouth of the Eurymedon River (in the south-west of Asia Minor) in 469 BC. and near the city of Salamis (in Cyprus) in 449 BC. Their final result was the recognition by the Achaemenids of the complete independence of all the Hellenic policies of the Aegean. It was recorded in 449 BC. The Kallia world, which received its name from the name of the noble Athenian ambassador who concluded it with the king of Persia.
The king of ancient Macedonia, Philip II, took the throne very young - at 23 years old. In 359 BC Macedonia was threatened by the invasion of the Illyrians. After the death of King Perdikka III, the country was left without a ruler, with the exception of the young son of Perdikka III Aminta. "Compassionate" neighbors - Athens, whose influence extended to the north of the Balkan Peninsula, and the Thracians were ready to subjugate a small and weak state to their influence. However, the brother of the murdered king, Philip, managed to settle the matter by paying off the Thracians with gold, and from Athens with the city of Amphipolis, which they extremely needed. Thanks to this, the people proclaimed Philip the king instead of the young Amyntas.
Conscious of the need to expand the state, Philip began with the army. In his youth, having been a hostage in Thebes, he learned something from one of the best strategists of that time - Epa-mnnonda. It was to Philip II that Macedonia owes the famous phalanx, which only the Roman legion could later surpass. The tsar also paid much attention to the artillery of that time, for the creation of which he invited the best mechanics from Syracuse.
Ashur was located in the upper reaches of the Tigris River, where mainly Semitic peoples lived. Trade routes of the ancient world converged here. From north to south, in Mesopotamia, they brought gold and silver, copper and tin, and slaves. Grain and vegetable oil, products of skilled artisans, were sent to the northern lands for sale. The inhabitants of Assur eventually realized that they could get rich by buying goods in some countries and reselling them in others. Only smart, cunning and courageous people could engage in intermediary trade. The merchant had to fight off the attacks of robbers; he had to be able to get along with the leaders of the wild tribes from whom he bought slaves; he had to know the languages, manners and customs of foreign countries, be courteous to the kings and their nobles, because the most expensive goods were sold in the royal palaces. For the convenience of trading in foreign lands, merchants built their own settlements, lived there among the local people, and only occasionally returned to their homeland for goods.
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In Ashur itself, the wealthy merchant elite ran all the city's affairs. High positions in the city administration were occupied by priests of the most revered temples. There were no kings in Assur yet. The city grew and grew rich without the need for distant military campaigns.
The Assyrians lived in the fertile steppe foothills. The land here gave abundant crops without additional irrigation, so irrigation canals and earthen dams were most often not needed. A large peasant family cultivated their allotment on their own, without asking for help from either neighbors or the temple, they grazed bulls and sheep in the wide and free surrounding steppes. The Assyrian peasant could feed himself and his family, was free and independent, and paid relatively small taxes.
BC. the Philistines invaded Palestine, participants in the resettlement of the "peoples of the sea" - tribes of various origins that destroyed the powerful Hittite state and forced Egypt to defend itself from their onslaught. Thus, the land of Canaan for some time got rid of the painful attention of neighboring great powers, which made it possible to create a rather strong state of Israel in Palestine. The time of its existence is the most beloved page of its history for the Jewish people, its golden age.
12 "tribes" of Israel united to fight against the Philistines, who managed to gain a foothold on the fertile coastal strip of Palestine. The Israelites chose Saul from the “tribe” of Benjamin (about 1030 BC) as their king. Saul won a series of victories over the Philistines and drove them out of most of Palestine. But then setbacks began, caused by claims to power from the ambitious and intelligent David of the tribe of Judah. When Saul and his sons died fighting the Philistines, Saul's son-in-law David (1004 BC) was elected king.
Assyrian kings managed to take advantage of the circumstances and significantly strengthened their power. They used a new method of warfare, which frightened all the peoples of Asia Minor (see the article "Military Affairs of the Ancient East"). The Assyrians always attacked unexpectedly and quickly, like a lightning strike. Most often, prisoners were not taken: if the population of the captured city resisted, then it was completely destroyed as a warning to all the disobedient. Seeking obedience from the vanquished, they were deprived of their homeland, driving thousands of new subjects of the king to other places, often very far away. Everything was done in order to frighten the conquered peoples, to break their spirit, their will to freedom. The Assyrians plundered the conquered countries for decades.
However, the formidable Assyrian kings were never able to unite the conquered countries for a long time, to create a strong state. The vigilance of the eagle helped them to quickly notice rebellions on the outskirts of the state, the lion's courage to confront enemies in open battle, the stubbornness of the bull helped out when defeat seemed inevitable, but these qualities were not enough to solve new problems.
It turned out to be impossible to endlessly rob the conquered countries: there was no one to sow their own fields and engage in crafts. The Assyrians had too many military leaders and too few officials to collect taxes. The scribe could replace the soldier only where the population voluntarily agreed to live under the rule of the Assyrians. There were no such peoples in the Ancient East - everyone hated the invaders.
The Assyrians also had difficulty with trading cities, which throughout their history enjoyed special rights: they did not pay high taxes, their inhabitants were exempted from military service. The Assyrians did not want to keep these privileges, but they also could not abolish them, fearing constant rebellions.
One such free city was Babylon. The Assyrians mainly adopted culture, religion and writing from Babylon. The respect for this city was so great that for some time it became, as it were, the second capital of Assyria. The kings who ruled in Nineveh made rich gifts to the Babylonian temples, decorated the city with palaces and statues, and Babylon nevertheless remained the center of dangerous conspiracies and rebellions against the Assyrian authorities. The matter ended with the fact that King Sennacherib in 689 BC. ordered to destroy the whole city and flood the place where he stood (see article "Babylon"). The terrible act of the king caused discontent even in Pinevia itself, and although the city was quickly rebuilt under the son of Sennacherib Assar Haddon, relations between Assyria and Babylon deteriorated completely. Assyria was never able to rely on the authority of the most important religious and cultural center of Western Asia.
The Athenians, who found themselves in the most distressed situation, did everything to ensure that the general battle of the Hellenic fleet with the Persian took place. It began in the Strait of Salamis off the coast of Attica on September 20, 480 BC. The lighter and more maneuverable Greek ships, among which the Athenian ones prevailed (with crews who knew the local water area, which was full of pitfalls and shoals), unanimously and decisively attacked the enemy, inflicting a crushing defeat on him. Themistocles played a decisive role in the preparation and successful conduct of this historically important battle.
Fearing after the defeat of Salamis that the Greeks would destroy the pontoon crossing he built across the Hellespont and deprive him of the opportunity to return to Persia, Xerxes hurried to start a retreat along the already familiar path along the western and northern shores of the Aegean Sea. In Greece, he left Mardonius with a large army, who retreated to the north for the winter - to Thessaly, allied to the Persians.
In the next campaign, 479 BC in fact, the fate of the Hellenic policies of the south of the Balkans was decided. In the spring, the offensive of the Persians resumed, acting together with the Thessalians and Thebans. Mardonius invaded Attica, and its population was again forced to seek refuge in Salamis. But the recapture of Athens was the last success of Mardonius.
